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<title>Endocrine system</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Endocrine system</span></span>

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</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Endocrine system</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Main <a href="Endocrine_gland" title="Endocrine gland">glands</a> of the human endocrine system</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>systema endocrinum</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004703">D004703</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma9668">9668</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The <b>endocrine system</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a messenger system in an <a href="Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> comprising <a href="Feedback_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback loop">feedback loops</a> of <a href="Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a> that are released by internal <a href="Gland" title="Gland">glands</a> directly into the <a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a> and that target and regulate distant <a href="Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a>. In <a href="Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, the <a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.

</p><p>In <a href="Humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Humans">humans</a>, the major <a href="Endocrine_gland" title="Endocrine gland">endocrine glands</a> are the <a href="Thyroid_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid gland">thyroid</a>, <a href="Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">parathyroid</a>, <a href="Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary</a>, <a href="Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal</a>, and <a href="Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a>, and the (male) <a href="Testis" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis">testis</a> and (female) <a href="Ovaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovaries">ovaries</a>. The <a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, <a href="Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>, and <a href="Thymus" title="Thymus">thymus</a> also function as endocrine glands, among other functions. (The hypothalamus and pituitary glands are organs of the <a href="Neuroendocrinology#Neuroendocrine_system" title="Neuroendocrinology">neuroendocrine system</a>. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus—it is located in the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> adjacent to the pituitary gland—is to link the endocrine system to the <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> via the pituitary gland.) Other organs, such as the <a href="Kidneys" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidneys">kidneys</a>, also have roles within the endocrine system by secreting certain hormones. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as <a href="Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">endocrinology</a>.

The <a href="Thyroid_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid gland">thyroid</a> secretes <a href="Thyroxine" title="Thyroxine">thyroxine</a>, the <a href="Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary</a> secretes <a href="Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormone</a>, the <a href="Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal</a> secretes <a href="Melatonin" title="Melatonin">melatonin</a>, the testis secretes <a href="Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a>, and the <a href="Ovaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovaries">ovaries</a> secrete <a href="Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a> and <a href="Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Gland" title="Gland">Glands</a> that signal each other in sequence are often referred to as an axis, such as the <a href="Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis</a>. In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions, including <a href="Bone" title="Bone">bone</a>, <a href="Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a>, <a href="Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, <a href="Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> and <a href="Gonad" title="Gonad">gonads</a>. For example, the kidney secretes the endocrine hormone <a href="Erythropoietin" title="Erythropoietin">erythropoietin</a>. Hormones can be amino acid complexes, <a href="Steroid" title="Steroid">steroids</a>, <a href="Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">eicosanoids</a>, <a href="Leukotriene" title="Leukotriene">leukotrienes</a>, or <a href="Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marieb_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marieb-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The endocrine system is contrasted both to <a href="Exocrine_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Exocrine glands">exocrine glands</a>, which secrete hormones to the outside of the body, and to the system known as <a href="Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">paracrine signalling</a> between cells over a relatively short distance. Endocrine glands have no <a href="Duct_(anatomy)" title="Duct (anatomy)">ducts</a>, are vascular, and commonly have intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as <a href="Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary glands</a>, <a href="Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary glands</a>, and <a href="Submucosal_glands" title="Submucosal glands">submucosal glands</a> within the <a href="Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow <a href="Lumen_(anatomy)" title="Lumen (anatomy)">lumen</a>.

Endocrinology is a branch of <a href="Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">internal medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marieb_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marieb-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_endocrine_systems">Major endocrine systems</h3></div>

<p>The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via <a href="Feedback_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback loop">feedback loops</a>. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the <a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> and pituitary.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<li><a href="Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93gonadal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis">GnRH – LH/FSH – sex hormones</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">CRH – ACTH – cortisol</a></li>

<li><a href="Renin%E2%80%93angiotensin_system" title="Renin–angiotensin system">Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_homeostasis" title="Energy homeostasis">Leptin vs. ghrelin</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glands">Glands</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Endocrine_gland" title="Endocrine gland">Endocrine gland</a></div>

<p>Endocrine glands are <a href="Gland" title="Gland">glands</a> of the endocrine system that secrete their products, <a href="Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a>, directly into interstitial spaces where they are absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the <a href="Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>, <a href="Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>, <a href="Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>, <a href="Ovary" title="Ovary">ovaries</a>, <a href="Testicle" title="Testicle">testes</a>, <a href="Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid gland</a>, <a href="Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">parathyroid gland</a>, <a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> and <a href="Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal glands</a>. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are <a href="Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> <a href="Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>.

</p><p>The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary are two out of the three endocrine glands that are important in cell signaling. They are both part of the HPA axis which is known to play a role in cell signaling in the nervous system.

</p><p>Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a key regulator of the autonomic nervous system. The endocrine system has three sets of endocrine outputs<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which include the magnocellular system, the parvocellular system, and autonomic intervention. The magnocellular is involved in the expression of oxytocin or vasopressin. The <a href="Parvocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Parvocellular neurosecretory cell">parvocellular</a> is involved in controlling the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary.

</p><p><a href="Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">Anterior Pituitary</a>: The main role of the anterior pituitary gland is to produce and secrete <a href="Tropic_hormone" title="Tropic hormone">tropic hormones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of tropic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland include TSH, ACTH, GH, LH, and FSH.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Endocrine_cells">Endocrine cells</h3></div>

<p>There are many types of cells that make up the endocrine system and these cells typically make up larger tissues and organs that function within and outside of the endocrine system.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></li>

<li><a href="Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">Anterior pituitary gland</a></li>

<li><a href="Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></li>

<li><a href="Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior pituitary gland</a>

<ul><li>The posterior pituitary gland is a section of the pituitary gland. This organ does not produce any hormone but stores and secretes hormones such as <a href="Antidiuretic_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiuretic hormone">antidiuretic hormone</a> (ADH) which is synthesized by supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus and oxytocin which is synthesized by paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus. ADH functions to help the body to retain water; this is important in maintaining a homeostatic balance between blood solutions and water. <a href="Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a> functions to induce uterine contractions, stimulate lactation, and allows for ejaculation.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid gland</a>

<ul><li><a href="Thyroid_follicular_cell" title="Thyroid follicular cell">follicular cells</a> of the thyroid gland produce and secrete <a href="Triiodothyronine" title="Triiodothyronine">T<sub>3</sub></a> and <a href="Thyroxine" title="Thyroxine">T<sub>4</sub></a> in response to elevated levels of <a href="Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">TRH</a>, produced by the <a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, and subsequent elevated levels of <a href="Thyroid-stimulating_hormone" title="Thyroid-stimulating hormone">TSH</a>, produced by the <a href="Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary gland</a>, which further regulates the <a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic activity</a> and rate of all cells, including <a href="Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">cell growth</a> and <a href="Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">tissue differentiation</a>.</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid gland</a> The endocrine system can control all emotions and can control temperature.

<ul><li><a href="Epithelium" title="Epithelium">Epithelial</a> cells of the parathyroid glands are richly supplied with blood from the <a href="Inferior_thyroid_artery" title="Inferior thyroid artery">inferior</a> and <a href="Superior_thyroid_arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior thyroid arteries">superior thyroid arteries</a> and secrete <a href="Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">parathyroid hormone</a> (PTH). PTH acts on bone, the kidneys, and the <a href="Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">GI tract</a> to increase <a href="Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> <a href="Reabsorption" title="Reabsorption">reabsorption</a> and phosphate excretion. In addition, PTH stimulates the conversion of <a href="Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a> to its most active variant, <a href="1%2C25-dihydroxyvitamin_D3" class="mw-redirect" title="1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3">1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D<sub>3</sub></a>, which further stimulates <a href="Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> absorption in the GI tract.<sup id="cite_ref-Marieb_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marieb-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus Gland</a></li>

<li><a href="Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal glands</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal cortex">Adrenal cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal medulla">Adrenal medulla</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a>

<ul><li>Pancreas contain nearly 1 to 2 million <a href="Islets_of_Langerhans" class="mw-redirect" title="Islets of Langerhans">islets of Langerhans</a> (a tissue which consists cells that secrete hormones) and acini. Acini secretes digestive enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<ul><li><a href="Alpha_cell" title="Alpha cell">Alpha cells</a>

<ul><li>The alpha cells of the pancreas secrete hormones to maintain <a href="Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostatic</a> blood sugar. Insulin is produced and excreted to lower blood sugar to normal levels. Glucagon, another hormone produced by alpha cells, is secreted in response to low blood sugar levels; glucagon stimulates <a href="Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a> stores in the liver to release sugar into the bloodstream to raise blood sugar to normal levels.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Beta_cell" title="Beta cell">Beta cells</a>

<ul><li>60% of the cells present in <a href="Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">islet of Langerhans</a> are beta cells. Beta cells secrete <a href="Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>. Along with glucagon, insulin helps in maintaining glucose levels in our body. Insulin decreases blood glucose level ( a hypoglycemic hormone) whereas glucagon increases blood glucose level.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Delta_cell" title="Delta cell">Delta cells</a></li>

<li><a href="Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">F Cells</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovaries</a>

<ul><li><a href="Granulosa_cell" title="Granulosa cell">Granulosa cells</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Testicle" title="Testicle">Testis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Leydig_cell" title="Leydig cell">Leydig cells</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Development_of_the_endocrine_system" title="Development of the endocrine system">Development of the endocrine system</a></div>

<p>The <b>fetal endocrine system</b> is one of the first systems to develop during <a href="Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">prenatal development</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adrenal_glands">Adrenal glands</h3></div>

<p>The fetal <a href="Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal cortex">adrenal cortex</a> can be identified within four weeks of <a href="Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a>. The adrenal cortex originates from the thickening of the intermediate <a href="Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>. At five to six weeks of gestation, the <a href="Mesonephros" title="Mesonephros">mesonephros</a> differentiates into a tissue known as the genital ridge. The genital ridge produces the steroidogenic cells for both the gonads and the adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla is derived from <a href="Ectoderm" title="Ectoderm">ectodermal cells</a>. Cells that will become adrenal tissue move retroperitoneally to the upper portion of the mesonephros. At seven weeks of gestation, the adrenal cells are joined by sympathetic cells that originate from the neural crest to form the <a href="Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal medulla">adrenal medulla</a>. At the end of the eighth week, the adrenal glands have been encapsulated and have formed a distinct organ above the developing kidneys. At birth, the adrenal glands weigh approximately eight to nine grams (twice that of the adult adrenal glands) and are 0.5% of the total body weight. At 25 weeks, the adult <a href="Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal cortex">adrenal cortex</a> zone develops and is responsible for the primary synthesis of <a href="Steroid" title="Steroid">steroids</a> during the early postnatal weeks.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thyroid_gland">Thyroid gland</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid gland</a> develops from two different clusterings of embryonic cells. One part is from the thickening of the pharyngeal floor, which serves as the precursor of the thyroxine (T<sub>4</sub>) producing <a href="Follicle_(anatomy)" title="Follicle (anatomy)">follicular</a> cells. The other part is from the caudal extensions of the fourth pharyngobranchial pouches which results in the parafollicular calcitonin-secreting cells. These two structures are apparent by 16 to 17 days of gestation. Around the 24th day of gestation, the foramen <a href="Cecum" title="Cecum">cecum</a>, a thin, flask-like <a href="Diverticulum" title="Diverticulum">diverticulum</a> of the median <a href="Primordium" title="Primordium">anlage</a> develops. At approximately 24 to 32 days of gestation the median anlage develops into a bilobed structure. By 50 days of gestation, the medial and lateral anlage have fused together. At 12 weeks of gestation, the fetal thyroid is capable of storing iodine for the production of <a href="Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">TRH</a>, <a href="Thyroid-stimulating_hormone" title="Thyroid-stimulating hormone">TSH</a>, and free thyroid hormone. At 20 weeks, the fetus is able to implement feedback mechanisms for the production of thyroid hormones. During fetal development, T<sub>4</sub> is the major thyroid hormone being produced while triiodothyronine (T<sub>3</sub>) and its inactive derivative, reverse T<sub>3</sub>, are not detected until the third trimester.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parathyroid_glands">Parathyroid glands</h3></div>

<p>A lateral and ventral view of an <a href="Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> showing the third (inferior) and fourth (superior) parathyroid glands during the 6th week of embryogenesis

</p><p>Once the embryo reaches four weeks of gestation, the <a href="Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">parathyroid glands</a> begins to develop. The human embryo forms five sets of <a href="Endoderm" title="Endoderm">endoderm</a>-lined pharyngeal pouches. The third and fourth pouch are responsible for developing into the inferior and superior parathyroid glands, respectively. The third pharyngeal pouch encounters the developing thyroid gland and they migrate down to the lower poles of the thyroid lobes. The fourth pharyngeal pouch later encounters the developing thyroid gland and migrates to the upper poles of the thyroid lobes. At 14 weeks of gestation, the parathyroid glands begin to enlarge from 0.1 mm in diameter to approximately 1 – 2 mm at birth. The developing parathyroid glands are physiologically functional beginning in the second trimester.

</p><p>Studies in <a href="Mouse" title="Mouse">mice</a> have shown that interfering with the <a href="Hox_gene" title="Hox gene">HOX15</a> gene can cause parathyroid gland <a href="Aplasia" title="Aplasia">aplasia</a>, which suggests the gene plays an important role in the development of the parathyroid gland. The genes, <a href="TBX1" title="TBX1">TBX1</a>, <a href="CRKL" title="CRKL">CRKL</a>, <a href="GATA3" title="GATA3">GATA3</a>, <a href="GCM2" title="GCM2">GCM2</a>, and <a href="SOX3" title="SOX3">SOX3</a> have also been shown to play a crucial role in the formation of the parathyroid gland. Mutations in TBX1 and CRKL genes are correlated with <a href="DiGeorge_syndrome" title="DiGeorge syndrome">DiGeorge syndrome</a>, while mutations in GATA3 have also resulted in a DiGeorge-like syndrome. Malformations in the GCM2 gene have resulted in <a href="Hypoparathyroidism" title="Hypoparathyroidism">hypoparathyroidism</a>. Studies on SOX3 gene mutations have demonstrated that it plays a role in parathyroid development. These mutations also lead to varying degrees of hypopituitarism.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pancreas">Pancreas</h3></div>

<p>The human fetal <a href="Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a> begins to develop by the fourth week of gestation. Five weeks later, the pancreatic <a href="Alpha_cell" title="Alpha cell">alpha</a> and <a href="Beta_cell" title="Beta cell">beta cells</a> have begun to emerge. Reaching eight to ten weeks into development, the pancreas starts producing <a href="Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, <a href="Glucagon" title="Glucagon">glucagon</a>, <a href="Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">somatostatin</a>, and <a href="Pancreatic_polypeptide" title="Pancreatic polypeptide">pancreatic polypeptide</a>. During the early stages of fetal development, the number of pancreatic alpha cells outnumbers the number of <a href="Pancreatic_beta_cell_function" title="Pancreatic beta cell function">pancreatic beta cells</a>. The alpha cells reach their peak in the middle stage of gestation. From the middle stage until term, the beta cells continue to increase in number until they reach an approximate 1:1 ratio with the alpha cells. The <a href="Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> concentration within the fetal pancreas is 3.6 pmol/g at seven to ten weeks, which rises to 30 pmol/g at 16–25 weeks of gestation. Near term, the insulin concentration increases to 93 pmol/g. The endocrine cells have dispersed throughout the body within 10 weeks. At 31 weeks of development, the <a href="Islets_of_Langerhans" class="mw-redirect" title="Islets of Langerhans">islets of Langerhans</a> have differentiated.

</p><p>While the fetal pancreas has functional beta cells by 14 to 24 weeks of gestation, the amount of insulin that is released into the bloodstream is relatively low. In a study of pregnant women carrying fetuses in the mid-gestation and near term stages of development, the fetuses did not have an increase in plasma insulin levels in response to injections of high levels of glucose. In contrast to insulin, the fetal plasma glucagon levels are relatively high and continue to increase during development. At the mid-stage of gestation, the glucagon concentration is 6 μg/g, compared to 2 μg/g in adult humans. Just like insulin, fetal glucagon plasma levels do not change in response to an infusion of glucose. However, a study of an infusion of alanine into pregnant women was shown to increase the cord blood and maternal glucagon concentrations, demonstrating a fetal response to amino acid exposure.

</p><p>As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during the remaining fetal maturation, the islet cells are relatively immature in their capacity to produce glucagon and insulin. This is thought to be a result of the relatively stable levels of fetal <a href="Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">serum glucose</a> concentrations achieved via maternal transfer of glucose through the placenta. On the other hand, the stable fetal serum glucose levels could be attributed to the absence of pancreatic signaling initiated by incretins during feeding. In addition, the fetal pancreatic islets cells are unable to sufficiently produce <a href="Cyclic_adenosine_monophosphate" title="Cyclic adenosine monophosphate">cAMP</a> and rapidly degrade cAMP by <a href="Phosphodiesterase" title="Phosphodiesterase">phosphodiesterase</a> necessary to secrete glucagon and insulin.

</p><p>During fetal development, the storage of glycogen is controlled by fetal <a href="Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">glucocorticoids</a> and <a href="Human_placental_lactogen" title="Human placental lactogen">placental lactogen</a>. Fetal insulin is responsible for increasing glucose uptake and <a href="Lipogenesis" title="Lipogenesis">lipogenesis</a> during the stages leading up to birth. Fetal cells contain a higher amount of insulin receptors in comparison to adults cells and fetal insulin receptors are not downregulated in cases of <a href="Hyperinsulinemia" title="Hyperinsulinemia">hyperinsulinemia</a>. In comparison, fetal haptic glucagon receptors are lowered in comparison to adult cells and the glycemic effect of glucagon is blunted. This temporary physiological change aids the increased rate of fetal development during the final trimester. Poorly managed maternal <a href="Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> is linked to <a href="Large_for_gestational_age" title="Large for gestational age">fetal macrosomia</a>, increased risk of miscarriage, and defects in fetal development. Maternal hyperglycemia is also linked to increased insulin levels and beta cell hyperplasia in the post-term infant. Children of diabetic mothers are at an increased risk for conditions such as: <a href="Polycythemia" title="Polycythemia">polycythemia</a>, <a href="Renal_vein_thrombosis" title="Renal vein thrombosis">renal vein thrombosis</a>, <a href="Hypocalcemia" title="Hypocalcemia">hypocalcemia</a>, <a href="Infant_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Infant respiratory distress syndrome">respiratory distress syndrome</a>, <a href="Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>, <a href="Cardiomyopathy" title="Cardiomyopathy">cardiomyopathy</a>, <a href="Congenital_heart_defect" title="Congenital heart defect">congenital heart disease</a>, and improper organ development.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gonads">Gonads</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Development_of_the_gonads" title="Development of the gonads">Development of the gonads</a></div>

<p>The reproductive system begins development at four to five weeks of gestation with germ cell migration. The bipotential gonad results from the collection of the medioventral region of the <a href="Urogenital_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Urogenital ridge">urogenital ridge</a>. At the five-week point, the developing <a href="Gonad" title="Gonad">gonads</a> break away from the adrenal primordium. Gonadal differentiation begins 42 days following conception.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Male_gonadal_development">Male gonadal development</h4></div>

<p>For males, the <a href="Testicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Testicles">testes</a> form at six fetal weeks and the sertoli cells begin developing by the eight week of gestation. <a href="SRY" class="mw-redirect" title="SRY">SRY</a>, the sex-determining locus, serves to differentiate the <a href="Sertoli_cell" title="Sertoli cell">Sertoli cells</a>. The Sertoli cells are the point of origin for <a href="Anti-M%C3%BCllerian_hormone" title="Anti-Müllerian hormone">anti-Müllerian hormone</a>. Once synthesized, the anti-Müllerian hormone initiates the ipsilateral regression of the Müllerian tract and inhibits the development of female internal features. At 10 weeks of gestation, the Leydig cells begin to produce androgen hormones. The androgen hormone dihydrotestosterone is responsible for the development of the male external genitalia.

</p><p>The testicles descend during prenatal development in a two-stage process that begins at eight weeks of gestation and continues through the middle of the third trimester. During the transabdominal stage (8 to 15 weeks of gestation), the <a href="Gubernaculum" title="Gubernaculum">gubernacular ligament</a> contracts and begins to thicken. The craniosuspensory ligament begins to break down. This stage is regulated by the secretion of <a href="INSL3" title="INSL3">insulin-like 3</a> (INSL3), a relaxin-like factor produced by the testicles, and the INSL3 G-coupled receptor, LGR8. During the transinguinal phase (25 to 35 weeks of gestation), the testicles descend into the scrotum. This stage is regulated by androgens, the genitofemoral nerve, and calcitonin gene-related peptide. During the second and third trimester, testicular development concludes with the diminution of the fetal Leydig cells and the lengthening and coiling of the <a href="Seminiferous_tubule" title="Seminiferous tubule">seminiferous cords</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Female_gonadal_development">Female gonadal development</h4></div>

<p>For females, the <a href="Ovary" title="Ovary">ovaries</a> become morphologically visible by the 8th week of gestation. The absence of testosterone results in the diminution of the Wolffian structures. The Müllerian structures remain and develop into the fallopian tubes, uterus, and the upper region of the vagina. The <a href="Urogenital_sinus" title="Urogenital sinus">urogenital sinus</a> develops into the urethra and lower region of the vagina, the genital tubercle develops into the clitoris, the urogenital folds develop into the labia minora, and the urogenital swellings develop into the labia majora. At 16 weeks of gestation, the ovaries produce <a href="Follicle-stimulating_hormone_receptor" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor">FSH</a> and <a href="Luteinizing_hormone/choriogonadotropin_receptor" title="Luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor">LH/hCG receptors</a>. At 20 weeks of gestation, the theca cell precursors are present and oogonia <a href="Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> is occurring. At 25 weeks of gestation, the ovary is morphologically defined and <a href="Folliculogenesis" title="Folliculogenesis">folliculogenesis</a> can begin.

</p><p>Studies of <a href="Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> show that a specific complement of genes, such as follistatin and multiple cyclin kinase inhibitors are involved in ovarian development. An assortment of genes and proteins - such as WNT4, RSPO1, FOXL2, and various estrogen receptors - have been shown to prevent the development of testicles or the lineage of male-type cells.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pituitary_gland">Pituitary gland</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a> is formed within the rostral neural plate. The Rathke's pouch, a cavity of ectodermal cells of the <a href="Oropharynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Oropharynx">oropharynx</a>, forms between the fourth and fifth week of gestation and upon full development, it gives rise to the anterior pituitary gland. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary vascular system begins to develop. During the first 12 weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary undergoes cellular differentiation. At 20 weeks of gestation, the <a href="Hypophyseal_portal_system" title="Hypophyseal portal system">hypophyseal portal system</a> has developed. The Rathke's pouch grows towards the third ventricle and fuses with the diverticulum. This eliminates the lumen and the structure becomes Rathke's cleft. The posterior pituitary lobe is formed from the diverticulum. Portions of the pituitary tissue may remain in the nasopharyngeal midline. In rare cases this results in functioning ectopic hormone-secreting tumors in the nasopharynx.

</p><p>The functional development of the anterior pituitary involves <a href="Spatiotemporal" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatiotemporal">spatiotemporal</a> regulation of transcription factors expressed in pituitary stem cells and dynamic gradients of local soluble factors. The coordination of the dorsal gradient of pituitary morphogenesis is dependent on neuroectodermal signals from the infundibular bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4). This protein is responsible for the development of the initial invagination of the Rathke's pouch. Other essential proteins necessary for pituitary cell proliferation are <a href="FGF8" class="mw-redirect" title="FGF8">Fibroblast growth factor 8</a> (FGF8), Wnt4, and Wnt5. Ventral developmental patterning and the expression of transcription factors is influenced by the gradients of BMP2 and <a href="Sonic_hedgehog" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonic hedgehog">sonic hedgehog protein</a> (SHH). These factors are essential for coordinating early patterns of cell proliferation.

</p><p>Six weeks into gestation, the <a href="Corticotropic_cell" title="Corticotropic cell">corticotroph cells</a> can be identified. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary is capable of secreting ACTH. Within eight weeks of gestation, <a href="Somatotropic_cell" title="Somatotropic cell">somatotroph</a> cells begin to develop with <a href="Cytoplasmic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic">cytoplasmic</a> expression of human growth hormone. Once a fetus reaches 12 weeks of development, the thyrotrophs begin expression of Beta subunits for TSH, while <a href="Gonadotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonadotrophs">gonadotrophs</a> being to express beta-subunits for LH and FSH. Male fetuses predominately produced LH-expressing gonadotrophs, while female fetuses produce an equal expression of LH and FSH expressing gonadotrophs. At 24 weeks of gestation, prolactin-expressing <a href="Lactotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactotroph">lactotrophs</a> begin to emerge.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_human_endocrine_organs_and_actions" title="List of human endocrine organs and actions">List of human endocrine organs and actions</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hormones">Hormones</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormone</a></div>

<p>A <a href="Hormone" title="Hormone">hormone</a> is any of a class of <a href="Cell_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell signalling">signaling molecules</a> produced by cells in <a href="Gland" title="Gland">glands</a> in <a href="Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a> that are transported by the <a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a> to target distant organs to regulate <a href="Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="Behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Behaviour">behaviour</a>. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: <a href="Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">eicosanoids</a>, <a href="Steroid" title="Steroid">steroids</a>, and <a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a>/<a href="Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> derivatives (<a href="Amine" title="Amine">amines</a>, <a href="Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a>, and <a href="Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (<a href="Autocrine_signaling" title="Autocrine signaling">autocrine</a> or <a href="Intracrine" title="Intracrine">intracrine signalling</a>) or nearby cells (<a href="Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">paracrine signalling</a>).

</p><p>Hormones are used to communicate between <a href="Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> and tissues for <a href="Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">physiological</a> regulation and <a href="Behavioral" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral">behavioral</a> activities, such as digestion, <a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, <a href="Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>, <a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> function, <a href="Sensory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory perception">sensory perception</a>, <a href="Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a>, <a href="Excretion" title="Excretion">excretion</a>, <a href="Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>, <a href="Stress_(physiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physiology)">stress</a>, <a href="Human_development_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (biology)">growth and development</a>, <a href="Motor_coordination" title="Motor coordination">movement</a>, <a href="Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a>, and <a href="Mood_(psychology)" title="Mood (psychology)">mood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific <a href="Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptor</a> proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid changes to the activity of existing proteins, or slower changes in the <a href="Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> of target genes. Amino acid–based hormones (<a href="Amines" class="mw-redirect" title="Amines">amines</a> and <a href="Peptide_hormone" title="Peptide hormone">peptide or protein hormones</a>) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via <a href="Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a> pathways; <a href="Steroid_hormone" title="Steroid hormone">steroid hormones</a>, being lipid-soluble, move through the <a href="Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">plasma membranes</a> of target cells to act within their <a href="Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_signalling">Cell signalling</h3></div>

<p>The typical mode of <a href="Cell_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell signalling">cell signalling</a> in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and <a href="Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between <a href="Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a>, on the other hand, belongs completely to the <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Autocrine">Autocrine</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Autocrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocrine signalling">Autocrine signalling</a></div>

<p>Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paracrine">Paracrine</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">Paracrine signalling</a></div>

<p>Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is <a href="Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">somatostatin</a> which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Marieb_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marieb-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Juxtacrine">Juxtacrine</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Juxtacrine_signalling" title="Juxtacrine signalling">Juxtacrine signalling</a></div>

<p><a href="Juxtacrine_signalling" title="Juxtacrine signalling">Juxtacrine</a> signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as <a href="Connexon" title="Connexon">connexons</a>. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Endocrine_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocrine diseases">Endocrine diseases</a></div>

<p><a href="Endocrine_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocrine diseases">Diseases of the endocrine system</a> are common,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including conditions such as <a href="Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a>, <a href="Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> disease, and <a href="Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>.

Endocrine disease is characterized by misregulated hormone release (a productive <a href="Pituitary_adenoma" title="Pituitary adenoma">pituitary adenoma</a>), inappropriate response to signaling (<a href="Hypothyroidism" title="Hypothyroidism">hypothyroidism</a>), lack of a gland (<a href="Diabetes_mellitus_type_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 1">diabetes mellitus type 1</a>, diminished <a href="Erythropoiesis" title="Erythropoiesis">erythropoiesis</a> in <a href="Chronic_kidney_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic kidney failure">chronic kidney failure</a>), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (<a href="Toxic_multinodular_goitre" title="Toxic multinodular goitre">toxic multinodular goitre</a>). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, <a href="Agenesis" title="Agenesis">agenesis</a>, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, <a href="Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">hyperplastic</a> or <a href="Neoplastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplastic">neoplastic</a> change, or hyperstimulation.

</p><p><a href="Endocrinopathies" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocrinopathies">Endocrinopathies</a> are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As the <a href="Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid</a>, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the <a href="Estrogen_receptor" title="Estrogen receptor">estrogen receptor</a> has been shown to be involved in certain <a href="Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancers</a>. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of <a href="Oncogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Oncogenesis">oncogenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include <a href="Addison's_disease" title="Addison's disease">Addison's disease</a>, <a href="Cushing's_disease" title="Cushing's disease">Cushing's disease</a> and <a href="Graves'_disease" title="Graves' disease">Graves' disease</a>. Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or <a href="Hypocortisolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypocortisolism">hypocortisolism</a>. Cushing's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some clinical signs of Cushing's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Graves'_disease" title="Graves' disease">Graves' disease</a> effects range from excess sweating, <a href="Fatigue" title="Fatigue">fatigue</a>, heat intolerance and <a href="High_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="High blood pressure">high blood pressure</a> to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="DALY_rates">DALY rates</h2></div>

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<p><br>

A DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Year) is a measure that reflects the total burden of disease. It combines years of life lost (due to premature death) and years lived with disability (adjusted for the severity of the disability). The lower the DALY rates, the lower the burden of endocrine disorders in a country.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The map shows that large parts of Asia have lower DALY rates (pale yellow), suggesting that endocrine disorders have a relatively low impact on overall health, whereas some countries in South America and Africa (specifically Suriname and Somalia) have higher DALY rates (dark orange to red), indicating a higher disease burden from endocrine disorders.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2></div>

<p>A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all <a href="Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> with a nervous system and all <a href="Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> have a hypothalamus–pituitary axis.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in <a href="Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All vertebrates have some form of a renin–angiotensin axis, and all <a href="Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</a> have aldosterone as a primary <a href="Mineralocorticoid" title="Mineralocorticoid">mineralocorticoid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2></div>

<div class="gallerytext">Female endocrine system</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Male endocrine system</div>

</li>

</ul>

<ul><li><a href="Endocrine_disease" title="Endocrine disease">Endocrine disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_human_endocrine_organs_and_actions" title="List of human endocrine organs and actions">List of human endocrine organs and actions</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li>

<li><a href="Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">Paracrine signalling</a></li>

<li><a href="Releasing_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Releasing hormone">Releasing hormones</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropic_hormone" title="Tropic hormone">Tropic hormone</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHartenstein2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hartenstein V (September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.1.06964">"The neuroendocrine system of invertebrates: a developmental and evolutionary perspective"</a>. <i>The Journal of Endocrinology</i>. <b>190</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">555–</span>70. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1677%2Fjoe.1.06964">10.1677/joe.1.06964</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17003257">17003257</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDickhoffDarling1983" class="citation journal cs1">Dickhoff WW, Darling DS (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F23.3.697">"Evolution of Thyroid Function and Its Control in Lower Vertebrates"</a>. <i>American Zoologist</i>. <b>23</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">697–</span>707. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F23.3.697">10.1093/icb/23.3.697</a></span>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3882951">3882951</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGalton1988" class="citation journal cs1">Galton VA (January 1, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F28.2.309">"The Role of Thyroid Hormone in Amphibian Development"</a>. <i>Integrative and Comparative Biology</i>. <b>28</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">309–</span>18. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F28.2.309">10.1093/icb/28.2.309</a></span>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3883279">3883279</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPohoreckyWurtman1971" class="citation journal cs1">Pohorecky LA, Wurtman RJ (March 1971). "Adrenocortical control of epinephrine synthesis". <i>Pharmacological Reviews</i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>35. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-6997%2825%2906886-3">10.1016/S0031-6997(25)06886-3</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4941407">4941407</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1984" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson JX (1984). "The renin-angiotensin system in nonmammalian vertebrates". <i>Endocrine Reviews</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">45–</span>61. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fedrv-5-1-45">10.1210/edrv-5-1-45</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6368215">6368215</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFColomboDalla_ValleFioreArmanini2006" class="citation journal cs1">Colombo L, Dalla Valle L, Fiore C, Armanini D, Belvedere P (April 2006). "Aldosterone and the conquest of land". <i>Journal of Endocrinological Investigation</i>. <b>29</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">373–</span>9. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf03344112">10.1007/bf03344112</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16699307">16699307</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25316873">25316873</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Human Physiology">Human Physiology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Human Physiology/The endocrine system">The endocrine system</a></b></i></div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Anatomy and Physiology of Animals">Anatomy and Physiology of Animals</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals/Endocrine_System" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Endocrine System">Endocrine System</a></b></i></div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_system" class="extiw external" title="commons:Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system174" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">Anterior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pars_intermedia" title="Pars intermedia">Pars intermedia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pars_tuberalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pars tuberalis">Pars tuberalis</a></li>

<li><a href="Anterior_pituitary#Pars_distalis" title="Anterior pituitary">Pars distalis</a></li>

<li><a href="Acidophil_cell" title="Acidophil cell">Acidophil cell</a>

<ul><li><a href="Somatotropic_cell" title="Somatotropic cell">Somatotropic cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Lactotropic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactotropic cell">Prolactin cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatomammotrophic_cell" title="Somatomammotrophic cell">Somatomammotrophic cell</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Basophil_cell" title="Basophil cell">Basophil cell</a>

<ul><li><a href="Corticotropic_cell" title="Corticotropic cell">Corticotropic cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Gonadotropic_cell" title="Gonadotropic cell">Gonadotropic cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Thyrotropic_cell" title="Thyrotropic cell">Thyrotropic cell</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chromophobe_cell" title="Chromophobe cell">Chromophobe cell</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Pars nervosa</a></li>

<li><a href="Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">Median eminence</a></li>

<li><a href="Pituitary_stalk" title="Pituitary stalk">Stalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Pituicyte" title="Pituicyte">Pituicyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Herring_bodies" title="Herring bodies">Herring bodies</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thyroid_follicular_cell" title="Thyroid follicular cell">Follicular cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Parafollicular_cell" title="Parafollicular cell">Parafollicular cell</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Parathyroid_chief_cell" title="Parathyroid chief cell">Chief cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxyphil_cell_(parathyroid)" title="Oxyphil cell (parathyroid)">Oxyphil cell</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal cortex">Cortex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Zona_glomerulosa" title="Zona glomerulosa">Zona glomerulosa</a></li>

<li><a href="Zona_fasciculata" title="Zona fasciculata">Zona fasciculata</a></li>

<li><a href="Zona_reticularis" title="Zona reticularis">Zona reticularis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal medulla">Medulla</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chromaffin_cell" title="Chromaffin cell">Chromaffin cell</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Gonad" title="Gonad">Gonads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a>

<ul><li><a href="Leydig_cell" title="Leydig cell">Leydig cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Sertoli_cell" title="Sertoli cell">Sertoli cell</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a>

<ul><li><a href="Theca_interna" title="Theca interna">Theca interna</a></li>

<li><a href="Granulosa_cell" title="Granulosa cell">Granulosa cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Corpus_luteum" title="Corpus luteum">Corpus luteum</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of pancreas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alpha_cell" title="Alpha cell">Alpha cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Delta_cell" title="Delta cell">Delta cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Epsilon_cell" title="Epsilon cell">Epsilon cell</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pinealocyte" title="Pinealocyte">Pinealocyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Corpora_arenacea" title="Corpora arenacea">Corpora arenacea</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Enteroendocrine_cell" title="Enteroendocrine cell">Enteroendocrine cell</a></li>

<li><a href="Paraganglion" title="Paraganglion">Paraganglia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Organ_of_Zuckerkandl" title="Organ of Zuckerkandl">Organ of Zuckerkandl</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li>

<li><a href="Development_of_the_endocrine_system" title="Development of the endocrine system">Development</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_human_endocrine_organs_and_actions" title="List of human endocrine organs and actions">List of human endocrine organs and actions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_systems_and_organs393" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Human_systems_and_organs393" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_body" title="Human body">Human systems</a> and <a href="Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">Musculoskeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li>

<li><a href="Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li>

<li><a href="Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li>

<li><a href="Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li>

<li><a href="Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li>

<li><a href="Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li>

<li><a href="Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li>

<li><a href="Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li>

<li><a href="Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li>

<li><a href="Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li>

<li><a href="Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li>

<li><a href="Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li>

<li><a href="Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li>

<li><a href="Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li>

<li><a href="Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li>

<li><a href="Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li>

<li><a href="Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li>

<li><a href="Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li>

<li><a href="Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i>peripheral</i>

<ul><li><a href="Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li>

<li><a href="Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i>primary</i>

<ul><li><a href="Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li>

<li><a href="Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i>secondary</i>

<ul><li><a href="Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li>

<li><a href="Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i>CNS equivalent</i>

<ul><li><a href="Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li>

<li><a href="Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a>

<li><a href="Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li>

<li><a href="Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li>

<li><a href="Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a href="Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a>

<ul><li><a href="Immune_system" title="Immune system">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a>

<ul><li><a href="Immune_system" title="Immune system">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a>

<li><a href="Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li>

<li><a href="Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a>

<ul><li><a href="Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li>

<li><a href="Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a>

<ul><li><a href="Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li>

<li><a href="Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i>upper GI</i>

<ul><li><a href="Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li>

<li><a href="Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li>

<li><a href="Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i>lower GI</i>

<ul><li><a href="Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li>

<li><a href="Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li>

<li><a href="Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li>

<li><a href="Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">accessory</a></i>

<ul><li><a href="Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li>

<li><a href="Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li>

<li><a href="Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li>

<li><a href="Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li>

<li><a href="Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li>

<li><a href="Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li>

<li><a href="Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li>

<li><a href="Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li>

<li><a href="Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a>

<ul><li><a href="Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li>

<li><a href="Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li>

<li><a href="Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li>

<li><a href="Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li>

<li><a href="Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li>

<li><a href="Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li>

<li><a href="Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li>

<li><a href="Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li>

<li><a href="Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li>

<li><a href="Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hormones57" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Hormones57" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormones</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Endocrine_gland" title="Endocrine gland">Endocrine<br>glands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hypothalamic–pituitary250" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary_hormone" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary hormone">Hypothalamic–<br>pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin (GHIH)</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">Anterior pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Prolactin" title="Prolactin">Prolactin</a></li>

<li><a href="Endorphins" title="Endorphins">Endorphins</a></li>

<li><a href="Lipotropin" title="Lipotropin">Lipotropin</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">Adrenal axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adrenal_gland#Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal cortex</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">Aldosterone</a></li>

<li><a href="Cortisol" title="Cortisol">Cortisol</a></li>

<li><a href="Cortisone" title="Cortisone">Cortisone</a></li>

<li><a href="Androstenedione" title="Androstenedione">Androstenedione</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adrenal_gland#Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal medulla</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">Adrenaline</a></li>

<li><a href="Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thyroid_hormones" title="Thyroid hormones">Thyroid hormones</a>

<li><a href="Calcitonin" title="Calcitonin">Calcitonin</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93thyroid_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis">Thyroid axis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93gonadal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis">Gonadal axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Testicle" title="Testicle">Testis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Testosterone" title="Testosterone">Testosterone</a></li>

<li><a href="Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Inhibin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Estradiol" title="Estradiol">Estradiol</a></li>

<li><a href="Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li>

<li><a href="Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Activin</a></li>

<li><a href="Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Inhibin</a></li>

<li><a href="Relaxin" title="Relaxin">Relaxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Gonadotropin_surge-attenuating_factor" title="Gonadotropin surge-attenuating factor">GnSAF</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Estrogen" title="Estrogen">Estrogen</a></li>

<li><a href="Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glucagon" title="Glucagon">Glucagon</a></li>

<li><a href="Insulin" title="Insulin">Insulin</a></li>

<li><a href="Amylin" title="Amylin">Amylin</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pancreatic_polypeptide" title="Pancreatic polypeptide">Pancreatic polypeptide</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a></li>

<li><a href="N%2CN-Dimethyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N,N-Dimethyltryptamine">N,N-Dimethyltryptamine</a></li>

<li><a href="5-Methoxy-N%2CN-dimethyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine">5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thymosin" title="Thymosin">Thymosins</a>

<ul><li><a href="Thymosin_%CE%B11" title="Thymosin α1">Thymosin α1</a></li>

<li><a href="Beta_thymosin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta thymosin">Beta thymosins</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Thymopoietin" title="Thymopoietin">Thymopoietin</a></li>

<li><a href="Thymulin" title="Thymulin">Thymulin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Digestion" title="Digestion">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gastrin" title="Gastrin">Gastrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ghrelin" title="Ghrelin">Ghrelin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Duodenum" title="Duodenum">Duodenum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Secretin" title="Secretin">Secretin</a></li>

<li><a href="Motilin" title="Motilin">Motilin</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ileum" title="Ileum">Ileum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Enteroglucagon" title="Enteroglucagon">Enteroglucagon</a></li>

<li><a href="Peptide_YY" title="Peptide YY">Peptide YY</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a>/other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Insulin-like_growth_factor" title="Insulin-like growth factor">Insulin-like growth factor</a>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">Adipose tissue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Leptin" title="Leptin">Leptin</a></li>

<li><a href="Adiponectin" title="Adiponectin">Adiponectin</a></li>

<li><a href="Resistin" title="Resistin">Resistin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeleton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Osteocalcin" title="Osteocalcin">Osteocalcin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Renin" title="Renin">Renin</a></li>

<li><a href="Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">Calcitriol</a></li>

<li><a href="Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">Prostaglandin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Natriuretic_peptide" title="Natriuretic peptide">Natriuretic peptide</a>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11078#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata798" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11078#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata798" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4113434-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="endokrinní systém"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph165964&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=17878">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-15" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Endocrine_system&oldid=1300691393">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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